ERICKSON'S PHYCOSOSIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

CLICK HERE : Erikson's psychosocial development theory
Erik Erikson, the psychologist who re-envisioned the human life cycle as a series of developmental stages, described the "identity crisis," and popularized the genre of psychobiography with his books on Martin Luther and Mohandas Gandhi,......

BILL GATES

Biodata Bill Gatesbiodata18JanLahir :28 Oktober 1955 (umur 53) Seattle, WashingtonTempat tinggal :Amerika serikatPekerjaan :Chairman of Microsoft Co-Chair dari Bill & Melinda Gates FoundationSuami/Istri :Melinda Gates (1994–sekarang)Anak :Jennifer Katharine Gates (1996), Rory John Gates (1999) dan Phoebe Adele Gates (2002)William Henry Gates III (lahir di Seattle, Washington, 28 Oktober 1955; umur 53 tahun), lebih dikenal sebagai Bill Gates, adalah pendiri (bersama Paul Allen) dan ketua umum perusahaan perangkat lunak AS, Microsoft. Ia juga merupakan seorang filantropis melalui kegiatannya di Yayasan Bill & Melinda Gates. Ia menempati posisi pertama dalam orang terkaya di dunia versi majalah Forbes selama 13 tahun (1995 hingga 2007), namun sejak 5 Maret 2008 berada di posisi ketiga setelah pebisnis AS Warren Buffett dan pebisnis Meksiko Carlos Slim Helú.

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SAVANTS SYNDROME

Savant syndrome is perhaps one of the most fascinating phenomena in the study of human differences and cognitive psychology. It is often claimed that, because of the extraordinary abilities involved, we will never truly understand human memory and cognition until we understand the savant.

Savant syndrome was first properly recognised by Dr. J. Langdon Down, (n.b. he also originated the term Down’s syndrome). In 1887, he coined the term "idiot savant" - meaning low intelligence, and from the French, savoir, knowing or wise, to describe someone who had "extraordinary memory but with a great defect in reasoning power."

This term is now little used because of its inappropriate connotations, and the term savant syndrome has now been more or less adopted. Another term, autistic savant, is also widely used, but this can be somewhat misleading.

AUTISTIC SAVANTS

"Autistic savant" refers to individuals with autism who have extraordinary skills not exhibited by most persons. The estimated prevalence of savant abilities in autism is 10%, whereas the prevalence in the non-autistic population, including those with mental retardation, is less than 1%.

Savant skills occur within a narrow but constant range of human mental functions, generally in six areas: calendar calculating; lightening calculating & mathematical ability; art (drawing or sculpting); music (usually piano with perfect pitch); mechanical abilities; and spatial skills. In some instances unusual language abilities have been reported but those are rare.

Other skills much less frequently reported include map memorizing, visual measurement, extrasensory perception, unusual sensory discrimination such as enhanced sense of touch & smell, and perfect appreciation passing time without knowledge of a clock face. The most common savant skill is musical ability. A regularly reoccurring triad of musical genius, blindness and autism is particularly striking in the world literature on this topic.

AUTISME

Autism is a moderately rare condition resulting from a complex developmental disability that typically appears during the first three years of life. It is a neurological disorder that affects the functioning of the developing brain, resulting in sometimes profound communicative, social and cognitive deficits. Autism is estimated to occur in as many as 1 in 500 individuals, and is four times more prevalent in boys than girls and does not seem to be associated with any demographic features, such as economic, class, racial, ethnic, etc. Autistic traits are also sometimes observed in connection with other developmental disabilities, and CNS injuries.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SAVANT SYNDROME

Savant syndrome is exceedingly rare, but a remarkable condition in which persons with autism, or other serious mental handicaps, or major mental illness, have astonishing islands of ability or brilliance that stand out in stark contrast to their overall disability.

The skills can appear suddenly, without explanation, and have been reported as sometimes disappearing just as suddenly. It is useful to put these special skills into the following three categories:

Splinter Skills where the individual possesses specific skills that stand in contrast to their overall level of functioning,

Talented Savants where the individual displays a high level of ability that is in contrast to their disability, and

Prodigious Savants which involves a much rarer form of the condition, where the ability or brilliance is not only spectacular in contrast to the disability, but would be spectacular even if viewed in a non-disabled person. It is very likely that many savants do go unnoticed, and depending upon whether the three categories above are recognized, estimates of the incidence of savant syndrome can vary widely. In the case of prodigious savants it has been estimated that there may be fewer than 100 cases reported in the world literature in the past 100 years.

References
Frith, U (1989) Autism: Explaining the enigma. Blackwell.

Happé, F. (1994) Autism: An introduction to psychological theory. UCL Press.

Hermelin, B. (2001) Bright Splinters of the Mind: A personal story of research with autistic savants. Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Hockney, D. (2001) Secret Knowledge: Rediscovering the lost techniques of the old masters. Thames & Hudson.

Sacks, O. (1986) The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat. Picador.

Sacks, O. (1995) An Anthropologist from Mars. Picador.

Schopler, E. & Mesibov, G.B. (1995) Learning and Cognition in Autism. Plenum Press.

Selfe, L. (1977) Nadia: A case of extraordinary drawing ability in an autistic child. Academic Press.

Smith, N.& Tsimpli, I.-M. (1995) The Mind of a Savant: Language learning and modularity. Blackwell.

Treffert, A.D. (1989) Extraordinary People. Bantam.

Treffert, A.D. & Wallace, G.L. (2002) Islands of Genius. Scientific American, (June), p.60-69.

Wiltshire, S. (1987) Drawings. J.M. Dent.

Wiltshire, S. (1991) Floating Cities. Michael Joseph.

Website

Wisconsin Medical Society

http://www.bol.ucla.edu/~changc/index.html